The Nile is the longest river in the world, stretching
north for approximately 4,000 miles from East Africa
to the Mediterranean. Studies have shown that the River
(Iteru, meaning, simply, River, as the Egyptians called
it) gradually changed its location and size over millions
of years. The Nile flows from the mountains in the south
to the Mediterranean in the north. Egyptians traveling
to other lands would comment on the "wrong"
flow of other rivers. For example, a text of Tuthmosis
I in Nubia describes the great Euphrates river as the
"inverted water that goes downstream in going upstream."
Three rivers flowed into the Nile from the south and
thus served as its sources: the Blue Nile, the White
Nile and the Arbara. Within the southern section between
Aswan and Khartoum, land which was called Nubia, the
River passes through formations of hard igneous rock,
resulting in a series of rapids, or cataracts, which
form a natural boundary to the south. Between the first
and second cataracts lay Lower Nubia, and between the
second and sixth cataracts lay upper Nubia
Along most of its length through Egypt, the Nile has
scoured a deep, wide gorge in the desert plateau. At
Aswan North of the first cataract the Nile is deeper
and its surface smoother. Downstream from Aswan the
Nile flows northerly to Armant before taking a sharp
bend, called the Qena. From Armant to Hu, the River
extends about 180 kilometers and divides the narrow
southern valley from the wider northern valley.
Southern
Egypt, thus being upstream, is called Upper Egypt, and
northern Egypt, being downstream and the Delta, is called
Lower Egypt. In addition to the Valley and the Delta,
the Nile also divided Egypt into the Eastern and Western
Deserts.
The Nile Valley is a canyon running 660 miles long with
a floodplain occupying 4,250 square miles. The Delta
spans some 8,500 square miles and is fringed in its
coastal regions by lagoons, wetlands, lakes and sand
dunes.
The Delta represented 63 percent of the inhabited
area of Egypt, extending about 200 kilometers from
south to north and roughly 400 kilometers from east
to west. While today the Nile flows through the Delta
in only two principal branches, the Damietta and the
Rosetta, in ancient times there were three principal
channels, known as the water of Pre, the water of
Ptah and the water of Amun. In classical or Graeco-Roman
times, these were called the Pelusiac, the Sebennytic,
and the Canopic branches. There were additionally
subsidiary branches or artificially cut channels.
The most dominant features of the Delta as the sandy
mounds of clay and silt that appear as islands rising
1-12 meters above the surrounding area. Since these
mounds would not be submerged by the inundation, they
were ideal sites for Predynastic and Early Dynastic
settlements, and indeed evidence of human habitation
have been found. Perhaps these mounds rising above
the water table inspired the ancient belief of creation
as having begun on a mound of earth that emerged from
the primordial waters of Nun (Pyramid Text 600).
There were several major oases of the Western desert,
which comprised about 2/3 of Egypt: the Fayoum, where
during the Middle Kingdom period the capital of all
Egypt was situated, and which increasingly became
one of the most densely populated and agriculturally
productive area in Egypt, the Bahriya, where many
sarcophagi of the Graeco-Roman period have been found,
the so-called Golden Mummies, Kharga and Dakhla, which
were known for their excellent wines, and Siwa, whose
Oracle of Amun was consulted by Alexander the Great
to demonstrate that he was the true successor to the
kingship of Egypt.
The Eastern Desert was exploited in Pharaonic times
for its rich minerals.
The River filled all areas of life with symbolism.
In religion, for example, the creator sun-god Ra (Re)
was believed to be ferried across the sky daily in
a boat (compare that to the Greeks and Romans whose
non-creator sun-god rode across the sky in a chariot
driven by fiery horses, and Hymns to Hapy (Hapi),
the deity personifying the Nile, praise his bounty
and offerings were left to him, and the creation myths,
as mentioned earlier, revolve around the primordial
mound rising from the floodwaters surrounding it;
in ritual where Nile creatures such as the hippopotamus,
whose shape the goddess Tawaret took, or the crocodile,
called Sobek, or Heket (Heqet), the frog, deities
deemed powerful in the processes of childbirth and
fertility, were revered, in writing, where floral
signs such as the lotus and papyrus figured prominently,
in architecture, where the very structure of temples
emulated the mounds of the Nile and its waves, from
the bottom to the top of capital columns and the trim
on walls, and in travel, where models of boats have
been found dating from the fifth millennium BCE. and
The god Hapy was earlier mentioned as being the personification
of the floods and ensuing fertility. Two Hymns to
the Nile, one probably composed in the Middle Kingdom,
the second written later in the Ramesside period,
praise Hapy and the river for its renewed life for
Egypt.
"Hail to you Hapy, Sprung from earth, Come to
nourish Egypt Food provider, bounty maker, Who creates
all that is good! Conqueror of the Two Lands, He fills
the stores, Makes bulge the barns, Gives bounty to
the poor." (from the Middle Kingdom hymn as translated
by Lichtheim)
From the earliest times, the waters of the Nile, swollen
by monsoon rains in Ethiopia, flooded over the surrounding
valley every year between June and September of the
modern calendar. A nilometer was used to measure the
height of the Nile in ancient times. It usually consisted
of a series of steps against which the increasing
height of the Inundation, as well as the general level
of the river, could be measured. Records of the maximum
height were kept. Surviving nilometers exist connected
with the temples at Philae, on the Nubian Egyptian
border, Edfu, Esna, Kom Ombo, and Dendera, as well
as the best-known nilometer on the island of Elephantine
at Aswan.
The ancient Egyptian calendar, made up of twelve months
of 30 days each, was divided into three seasons, based
upon the cycles of the Nile. The three seasons were:
akhet, Inundation, peret, the growing season, and
shemu, the drought or harvest season. During the season
of the Inundation, layers of fertile soil were annually
deposited on the flood-plain. Chemical analysis has
shown how fertile the Nile mud is. It contains about
0.1 percent of combined nitrogen, 0.2 percent of phosphorus
anhydrides and 0.6 percent of potassium.
Since most of the Egyptian people worked as farmers,
when the Nile was at its highest and they could not
plant, they were drafted by corvee into labor projects
such as building Pyramids, repairing temples and other
monuments and working on the king's tomb.
Herodotus, the great Greek philosopher, wrote of the
Nile: "the river rises of itself, waters the
fields, and then sinks back again; thereupon each
man sows his field and waits for the harvest."
The great historian also called Egypt the gift of
the Nile. This description would lead the casual reader
to imagine Egypt as being a great paradise where the
people simply sat and waited for the sowing and harvesting
to need be done. But the ancient Egyptians knew better.
Too high a flood from their river, and villages would
be destroyed; too low a flood, and the land would
turn to dust and bring famine. Indeed, one flood in
five was either too low or too high.
The rock inscription called the Famine Stela, dated
in its present form from the Ptolemaic period, recounts
an incident, (whether real or fictitious is not currently
known for certain), from the period of King Djoser
of the 3rd Dynasty. The King writes to a governor
in the south, describing himself as disheartened over
the country's seven-year famine. The King learns from
a priest of Imhotep that if gifts are given to the
temple of Khnum, the creator-god of the region, who
it was believed had control over the Nile and its
flooding, then the famine would be ended.
"I was in mourning on my throne, Those of the
palace were in grief .because Hapy had failed to come
in time. In a period of seven years, Grain was scant,
Kernels were dried up Every man robbed his twin Children
cried The hearts of the old were needy Temples were
shut, Shrines covered with dust, Everyone was in distress
.I consulted one of the staff of the Ibis, the Chief
lector-priest of Imhotep, son of Ptah South-of-the-Wall
.He departed, he returned to me quickly, He let me
know the flow of Hapy Learn the names of the gods
and goddesses of the temple of Khnum: Satis, Anukis,
Hapy, Shu, Geb, Nut, Osiris, Horus, Isis, Nepththys
As I slept in peace the god stood before me, I propitiated
him by adoring him and praying to him. He revealed
himself to me with kindly face and said: I am Khnum,
your maker! My arms are around you For I am the maker
who makes, I am he who made himself, Exalted Nun,
who first came forth, Hapy who hurries at will I shall
make Hapy gush for you, No year of lack or want anywhere,
Plants w grow weighed by their fruit Gone will be
the hunger years Egypt's people wil come striding
Hearts will be happier than ever before .I made this
decree on behalf of my father Khnum In return for
what you had done for me all tenants who cultivate
the fields their harvests shall be taken to your granary
All fishermen, all hunters I extract from them one
tenth of the take of all these One shall give the
branded animals for all burnt offerings and daily
sacrifices, and one shall give one-tenth of gold,
ivory, ebony, ochre, carob wood, carnelian, all kinds
of timber " (as translated by Lichtheim)
Many modern travelers to Egypt today take a Nile cruise
as part of their package. And why not? For to see
the land as its people do, one must journey on the
river. A felucca is often the water vehicle of choice.
The Nile flowed from south to north at an average
speed of about four knots during inundation season.
The water level was on average about 25-33 feet deep
and navigation was fast. That made a river voyage
from Thebes (modern Luxor) north to Memphis (near
modern Cairo) lasting approximately two weeks. During
the dryer season when the water level was lower, and
speed slower, the same trip would last about two months.
At the great bend near Qena, the Nile would flow from
west to east and then back from east to west, slowing
down travel. No sailing was done at night because
of the danger of running aground on one of the many
sandbank and low islands.
When one cruises on the Nile, one might pass by the
ancient and significant sites of Karnak itself, Luxor,
on the other side of the river from Karnak, Dendera,
with its grand temple to the goddess Hathor, Abydos,
with its marvelous temple built by Seti I as well
as being the site of Earlier Dynastic tombs, Esna,
with its temple to the potter and creator-god Khnum,
lord of the region who was credited as having the
power over the river and its richness, Edfu, with
its temple to Horus, Kom Ombo, with its double temple
to Sobek and a form of Horus called Haroeris, and
Aswan itself, with its mighty modern dam.
Aswan,
Egypt's sunniest southern city and ancient frontier
town located about 81 miles south of Luxor, has
a distinctively African atmosphere. Its ancient
Egyptian name was Syene. Small enough to walk
around and graced with the most beautiful setting
on the Nile, the pace of life is slow and relaxing.
Days can be spent strolling up and down the broad
Corniche watching the sailboats etch the sky with
their tall masts or sitting in floating restaurants
listening to Nubian music and eating freshly caught
fish. In Aswan the Nile is at its most beautiful,
flowing through amber desert and granite rocks,
round emerald islands covered in palm groves and
tropical plants. Explore the souk, full of the
scent and color of spices, perfumes, scarves and
baskets. View the spectacular sunsets while having
tea on the terrace of the Old Cataract Hotel (Named
due to the location of the Nile's first cataract
located here). Aswan has been a favorite winter
resort since the beginning of the nineteenth century,
and it's still a perfect place to get away from
it all. Aswan is a strategic location which currently
houses a garrison of the Egyptian army, but which
has also seen ancient Egyptian garrisons, as well
as that of General Kitchener, Turkish troops of
the Ottoman empire and the Romans. The city proper
lies on the east bank of the Nile. Relax here,
visit a few mosques, but then prepare for an adventure.
The bazaar runs along the Corniche, which continues
past the Ferial Gardens and the Nubian Museum,
and continues on to the Cemetery, with its forest
of cupolas surmounted tombs from the Fatimid period.
Just east of the cemetery in the famous area quarries
is the gigantic Unfinished Obelisk. Just to the
south of this, two Graeco-Roman sarcophagi and
an unfinished colossus remain half buried in the
sand. The most obvious is Elephantine Island,
which is timeless with artifacts dating from pre-Dynastic
times onward. It is the largest island in the
area. Just beyond Elephantine is Kitchener's Island
(Geziret el-Nabatat). It was named for the British
general Haratio Kitchener (185--1916) and was
sent to Egypt in 1883 to reorganize the Egyptian
army, which he then led against the Sudanese Mahdi.
But the island is known for its garden and the
exotic plants the Kitchener planted there, and
which continue to flourish today.
On the opposite shore (west bank), the cliffs
are surmounted by the tomb of a marabut, Qubbet
el-Hawwa, who was a local saint. Below are tombs
of the local (pharaonic) nobles and dignitaries.
Upriver a bit is the tomb of Mohammed Shah Aga
Khan who died in 1957. Known as the Tomb of the
Aga Khan, it is beautiful in its simplicity. A
road from there leads back to the Coptic Monastery
of St Simeon, which was built in the sixth century
in honor of Amba Hadra, a local saint.
Just up river a bit, there is also the old Aswan
dam, built by the British, which was enlarged,
expanded, but unable to control the Nile for irrigation.
Luxor
has often been called the worlds greatest open
air museum, as indeed it is and much more. The
number and preservation of the monuments in the
Luxor area are unparalleled anywhere else in the
world that know of. Actually, what most people
think of as Luxor is really three different areas,
consisting of the City of Luxor on the East side
of the Nile, the town of Karnak just north of
Luxor and Thebes, which the ancient Egyptians
called Waset, which is on the west side of the
Nile across from Luxor. To say that the Luxor
area is a major attraction for tourists in Egypt
would be an understatement. It has been a tourist
destination since the beginning of tourism. Even
in ancient times, during the late Dynasties of
the Greek and Roman periods, the area drew tourists,
and has been doing so ever since. Today Luxor
is well equipped to accommodate tourists with
many hotels and in general a tourist industry
ready and willing to serve the people from many
countries that descend on this area of the Nile
Valley every year. Within Luxor, there are only
three main streets consisting of Sharia al-Mahatta,
Sharia al-Karnak and the Corniched, next to the
Nile. The street in front of the train station
is Sharia al-Mahatta and runs away from the Nile
where it meets the gardens of Luxor Temple. Sharia
al-Karnak, or Maabad al-Karnak which means Karnak
Temple Street runs along the Nile from Luxor Temple
to Karnak Temple. However, Sharia al-Karnak is
known as Sharia al-Markaz where it meets Sharia
al-Mahatta street, and to the south around the
temple it is known as Sharia al-Lokanda. Along
this street one will find the colorful signs of
restaurants and cafes, as well as bazaars where
the usual variety of Egyptian souvenirs can be
found. Of interest is the alabaster, which is
plentiful along the west bank and miled not far
from here. Also look for the clay pots used by
the locals for cooking, which are more unusual.
Luxor today is a city of some 150,000 people and
is governed by special statues that allow it more
autonomy then other political areas of Egypt.
One thing you might notice is that various government
and other buildings confirm to an 'ancient' building
code. Particularly, the National bank of Egypt
(located near the winter palace), the spa south
of the police station, and the railway station
are all designed to appear as pharaonic constructs.
All of this occurred after the Egyptianization
of the modern town resulting mostly from the mania
that resulted from Howard Carter's discovery of
the Tomb of Tutankhamun. As one might think, the
city has all the amenities tourists might expect,
including a variety of hotels, bars, nightclubs
and restaurants. In Luxor proper on the East Bank,
one of the first stops must be the Temple of Luxor
built by Amenophis III. Head south on Sharia al-Karnak
to reach the temple, which was connected to the
Karnak Temple via a long stone processional street
called a dromos. The dromos (Picture at right)
was built by Nectanebo I, and originally was lined
on either side by sphinxes. In front of the Luxor
temple, the dromos is well preserved, and on the
way to the entrance one passes by a Roman chapel
of burnt brick dedicated to the god Serapis, which
was built during the rule of Hadrian. There is
a path that leads to the Nile side of the Temple
where one enters the complex. After leaving Luxor,
head back to Sharia al-Karnak and go north towards
Karnak. Down the road, near the police station
which is near the tomb is the oldest mosque in
Luxor, the El-Mekashkesh Mosque. It contains the
remains of a 10th century Islamic saint who rumor
has it was a monk prior to converting to Islam.
The mosque is a popular pilgrimage destination.
Here also is the Franciscan Church and its schools,
one for boys and the other girls. Beyond this
lies a great Coptic basilica. At the Police station,
head towards the Nile Corniche. Here, opposite
the Mina Palace Hotel you will find the Mummification
Museum, which has most anything you would ever
want to know about mummifications. From here,
head north towards Karnak. About halfway to Karnak,
you will discover the Luxor Museum. (The image
at left is a Block Statue of Iamu Negh from the
Luxor Museum). It should certainly be visited
if you plan a well rounded and educated experience.
While this is a small museum, most of the relics
are from the surrounding area and provide considerable
insight to the monuments you will visit. From
the Museum, head back to Sharia al-Karnak and
continue north towards Karnak. After crossing
a small bridge one will begin to see the excavated
dromos off the road and running through a small
village. A little further on you will pass the
ruins of the Temple of Mut where another dromos
leads to the gateway of the tenth pylon. The road
finally arrives at the domed tombs of two saints,
Sidi Ahmed and Sidi Ali, where a road leads past
the Department of Antiquities leads to the main
Temple of Karnak entrance. This road is built
along a canal that once connected the Nile to
the Temple. There was a dock in ancient times,
but now all that is left is the quay and the raised
dais. Just past that is a red brick Roman dock
and past that two paved ramps led to the river
bank. They are bordered by stone parapets, and
were built during the rule of Taharqa. Past these
is the Chapel of Achoris, which received the sacred
boat of Amun when it was used in ceremonies. To
arrive at the entrance one follows the dromos
with its crio-sphinxes. They have the head of
a Ram and the body of a lion and are symbolic
of the God Amun. Arriving at the temple, there
is a statue of Ramesses II with his son between
his feet. To the right is a structure that has
red steps, a red front colonnade and red brick
walls. Inside there are pedestals. inscribed with
the names of Roman emperors, that once held their
statues. This was a Roman chapel dedicated to
imperial worship. After leaving the Temple complex
on the left is the Franco-Egyptian Center which
has managed the temple complex since 1967. Down
on the shore of the Nile is the Centre National
dl la Recherche Scientifque, or CNRS, which houses
the French and the Chicago House, a project of
the University of Chicago is near by. After this,
you will wish to take a boat trip over to the
West bank. This trip had a special meaning to
the Egyptians, for they were more crossing the
way to the West and life, then to a necropolis.
The Valley of the Kings is as good as any to try
first, with tombs from the 18th and 19th Dynasties.
Outside the Valley of the Kings, the road leads
past Antef, named for the 11th Dynasty prices
who were buried here. Some tombs can still be
seen as one heads towards the Temple of Seti I.
Most of what is left of Seti's Temple is the view.
The court is entered by the ruined gate of a pylon
The court has what is left of a palace on the
south side. The road continues south passing Dra-Abu
el-Naga necropolis. The road eventually winds
itself westward until reaching the Valley of Asasif.
These are 25th and 26th Dynasty tombs. At the
end of of the Valley of Asasif at the foot of
a cliff named Deir el-Bahri is a spectacular complex
of temples. The Temple of Mentuhetep I, Hatshepsut
and Thotmose II here must be seen. Much of the
architecture here seems so very powerful against
the towering cliffs in the background. From here,
the road continues past the remains of the temples
of Ramesses IV and Thutmose III, eventually reaching
the Necropolis of Sheikh Abd el-Qurna. This 18th
Dynasty necropolis sits amidst houses where there
are hundreds of holes. And below here, one comes
to the famous Ramesseum, built by Ramesses II,
a huge complex that took twenty years to complete.
As the road runs along past the remains of Thutmose
IV, Merneptah, Ay and Horemheb's Temples, it finally
comes to the huge complex known as Medinet Habu,
which is another of Thebe's major attractions
and a must see sight. The gate has square towers
and appears almost oriental. Behind the complex
is the workmen's village called Deir el-Medina.
Out in the fields near here is the Colossi of
Memnon, one of the major tourist attractions throughout
time. Southwest of Deir el-Medina is the Valley
of the Queens, where queens of the 18th and 19th
Dynasties were buried.
From here, the road continues past the mudbrick
remains of the Amenhotep III's palace called Malkatta.
There is a lake to the east and at the other end
of that, a small Roman temple called Deir Shelwit
and built at the end of the 1st century.
Not
only are the two temples at Abu Simbel among the
most magnificent monuments in the world but their
removal and reconstruction was an historic event
in itself. When the temples (280 km from Aswan)
were threatened by submersion in Lake Nasser,
due to the construction of the High Dam, the Egyptian
Government secured the support of UNESCO and launched
a world wide appeal.
During the salvage operation which began in 1964
and continued until 1968, the two temples were
dismantled and raised over 60 meters up the sandstone
cliff where they had been built more than 3,000
years before. Here they were reassembled, in the
exact same relationship to each other and the
sun, and covered with an artificial mountain.
Most of the joins in the stone have now been filled
by antiquity experts, but inside the temples it
is still possible to see where the blocks were
cut. You can also go inside the man made dome
and see an exhibition of photographs showing the
different stages of the massive removal project.
Abu Simbel was first reported by J. L. Burckhardt
in 1813, when he came over the mountain and only
saw the facade of the great temple as he was preparing
to leave that area via the Nile. The two temples,
that of Ramesses II primarily dedicated to Re-Harakhte,
and that of his wife, Nefertari dedicated to Hathor,
became a must see for Victorians visiting Egypt,
even though it required a trip up the Nile, and
often they were covered deeply in sand, as they
were when Burckhardt found them.
Edfu
was the Greek city of Apollinopolis Magna, and
is a religious and commercial center.
Located about 33 miles south of Isna and 65 miles
north of Aswan, this is a friendly town which
produces surgar and pottery.
It is also a hub of a road network. It was the
capital of the second nome (Horus) of Upper Egypt.
The main attraction here is the Temple of Horus,
which is considered by most to be the best preserved
cult temple in Egypt, but there is a mound of
rubble to the west of the Temple which is probably
the original old city of Djeba.
The town was known as Tbot by the early Egyptians,
by the Greeks as Apollinopolis Magna and by Atbo
during Coptic times.
It was the capital of the second nome (Horus)
of Upper Egypt.French and Polish teams have excavated
some of the ancient city, finding Old Kingdom
mastabas and Byzantine house.
Located
in the town of Kom-Ombo, about 28 miles north
of Aswan, the Temple, dating to the Ptolemies,
is built on a high dune overlooking the Nile.
The actual temple was started by Ptolemy VI Philometor
in the early second century BC. Ptolemy XIII built
the outer and inner hypostyle halls. The outer
enclosure wall and part of the court were built
by Augustus sometime after 30 BC, and are mostly
gone. There are also tombs from the Old Kingdom
in the vicinity of Kom-Ombo village.
The Temple known as Kom Ombo is actually two temples
consisting of a Temple to Sobek and a Temple of
Haroeris. In ancient times, sacred crocodiles
basked in the sun on the river bank near here.
The Temple has scant remains, due first to the
changing Nile, then the Copts who once used it
as a church, and finally by builders who used
the stones for new buildings.
Everything is duplicated along the main axis.
There are two entrances, two courts, two colonades,
two hypostyle halls and two sanctuaries. There
were probably even two sets of priests. The left,
or northern side is dedicated to Haroeris (sometimes
called Harer, Horus the Elder) who was the falcon
headed sky god and the right to Sobek (the corcodile
headed god). The two gods are accompanied by their
families. They include Haroeris' wife named Tesentnefert,
meaning the good sister and his son, Panebtawy.
Sobeck likewise is accompanied by his consort,
Hathor and son, Khonsu.
Foundations are all that are left of the original
Pylon. Beyond the Pylon, there was once a staircase
in the court that lead to a roof terrace. The
court has a columned portico and central altar.
There is a scene of the King leaving his palace
escorted by standards. Near the sanctuary is a
purification scene. On either side of the door
to the pronaos are columns inscribed with icons
of the lotus (south) and papyrus (north), symbolizing
the 'two lands' of Egypt.
In the southwest corner of the pronaos is the
one column that does not echo the duality of the
temples. Here, there are scenes depicting purification
of the King, his coronation and his consecration
of the Temple. The ceiling has astronomical images.
The hypostyle hall has papyrus capitals on the
columns. Here, there is an inventory of the scared
places of Egypt, the gods of the main towns and
the local and national festivals.
In the anti chamber, there are scenes depicting
the goddess Seshat launching the building of the
temple, followed by a scene of the completed temple
with the king throwing natron in a purification
ceremony. The staircase leading to the roof is
all that remains of the offering hall.
Statues to the gods and the builders of the temple
once occupied the net room just before the sanctuaries.
The ceiling of the pure place to the north still
remains with an image of Nut. There is little
left of the sanctuaries.
Nubia
is located in today's southern Egypt and northern
Sudan. The modern inhabitants of southern Egypt
and Sudan still refer to themselves as Nubians.
They speak the Nubian language as well as Arabic.
Thousands of Nubians from the north were forced
to relocate from their endangered homelands to
be resettled in Egypt and Sudan. This land has
one of the harshest climates in the world. The
temperatures are high throughout most of the year,
and rainfall is infrequent. The banks of the Nile
are narrow in much of Nubia, making farming difficult.
Yet, in antiquity, Nubia was a land of great natural
wealth, of gold mines, ebony, ivory and incense
which was always prized by her neighbors.
Nubia is the homeland of Africa's earliest black
culture with a history which can be traced from
3100 BC onward through Nubian monuments and artifacts,
as well as written records from Egypt and Rome.
The land of Nubia is a desert divided by the river
Nile. For want of water and rich soil, most of
Nubia has never been able to support a large population
for long periods. However, some of Africa's greatest
civilizations emerged here, centers of achievement
whose existence was based on industry and trade.
Because they did not write their own languages
until very late in ancient times, we know these
centers and their people largely through their
archaeology and what the Egyptians and Greeks
said about them.
To the ancient Mediterranean world, the land south
of Egypt was a territory of mystery and legend.
Wealth and exotic products came from there. It
was the home of the Ethiopians, whom Homer called
blameless and stories about its great achievements
endured to tantalize the modern world. This land
is one of enormous distances, and its exploration
was long impeded by problems of transport and
political unrest. In the last hundred years, Nubia
has slowly yielded its secrets, its vanished peoples,
abandoned cities and lost kingdoms brought to
light by the excavator and analysis of inscriptions.
This exhibit is a selection of objects recovered
over twenty years ago by the Oriental Institute
Nubian Expedition in the effort to rescue archaeology
from the rising water behind the Aswan Dam.
In the 1960's, a dam was constructed at Aswan,
Egypt. It created a 500 mile long lake which permanently
flooded ancient temples and tombs as well as hundreds
of modern villages in Nubia. While the dam was
under construction, hundreds of archaeologists
worked in Egypt and Sudan to excavate as many
ancient sites as possible. The Oriental Institute
worked in Nubia from 1960 until 68. Today, the
5000 Nubian objects in the collection of The Oriental
Institute Museum and thousands of objects in other
museums are our sole resource for recovering the
rich civilization of northern Nubia, for the sites
themselves now lie beneath the waters of Lake
Nasser. In contrast, expeditions from many countries
are working in southern Nubia.
The
Egyptian belief that "To speak the name of
the dead is to make him live again" is certainly
carried out in the building of the tombs. The
king's formal names and titles are inscribed in
his tomb along with his images and statues. Beginning
with the 18th Dynasty and ending with the 20th,
the kings abandoned the Memphis area and built
their tombs in Thebes. Also abandoned were the
pyramid style tombs. Most of the tombs were cut
into the limestone following a similar pattern:
three corridors, an antechamber and a sunken sarcophagus
chamber. These catacombs were harder to rob and
were more easily concealed. Construction usually
lasted six years, beginning with the new reign.
The text in the tombs are from the Book of the
Dead, the Book of the Gates and the Book of the
Underworld. See also a history and overview of
the Valley of the Kings.
Ramesses IV
Three white corridors descend to the sarcophagus
chamber in this tomb. The chambers ceilings depict
the goddess Nut. The lid of the pink granite sarcophagus
is decorated with Isis and Nephthys, which were
meant to serve as guardians over the body. Their
duties fell short, however, as the tomb was robbed
in ancient times. Originally the priests placed
the sarcophagus in Amenhotep II's tomb in order
to hide the body, which was a common practice.
Ramesses IX
Two sets of steps lead down to the tomb door that
is decorated with the Pharaoh worshipping the
solar disc. Isis and Nephthys stand behind him
on either side. Three corridors lead into an antechamber
that opens into a pillared hall. The passage beyond
that leads to the sarcophagus chamber.
Merneptah
The steep descent into the tombis typical of the
designs of the XIX Dynasty. The entrance is decorated
with Isis and Nephthys worshipping the solar disc.
Text from the Book of the Gates line the corridors.
The outer granite lid of the sarcophagus is located
in the antechamber, while the lid of the inner
sarcophagus is located down more steps in the
pillared hall. Carved on the pink granite lid
is the figure of Merneptah as Osiris
. Ramesses VI
Originally built for Ramesses V this tomb has
three chambers and a 4th pillared chamber was
added by Ramesses VI. Complete texts of the Book
of the Gates, the Book of Caverns and the Book
of Day and Night line the chambers. Portions of
the Book of the Dead are located in the pillared
chamber, along with scenes of the sky goddess,
Nut.
Ramesses III
The tomb is sometimes referred to as the "Harpers
Tomb" due to the two harpers playing to the
gods in four of the chambers. Ten small chambers
branch off of the main corridors. These were for
the placement of tomb furniture.
Seti I
The longest tomb in the valley, 100m, contains
very well preserved reliefs in all of its eleven
chambers and side rooms. One of the back chambers
is decorated with the Ritual of the Opening of
the Mouth, which stated that the mummy's eating
and drinking organs were properly functioning.
Believing in the need for these functions in the
afterlife, this was a very important ritual. The
sarcophagus is now in the Sir John Soane Museum,
London.
Tuthmosis III
The approach to this unusual tomb is an ascent
up wooden steps, crossing over a pit, and then
a steep descent down into the tomb. The pit was
probably dug as a deterrent to tomb robbers. Two
small chambers, decorated with stars, and a larger
vestibule are in front of the sarcophagus chamber,
which is uniquely rounded and decorated with only
red and black.
Amenhotep II
In this Tomb, a steep flight of stairs and a long
unadorned corridor lead to the sarcophagus chamber.
Three mummies, Tuthmosis IV, Amenhotep II III
and Seti II, were found in one side room and nine
mummies were found in another.
Horemheb
This tomb's construction is identical to that
of Seti I's with the exception of some of the
inner decorations.
Tutankhamun
Though small and unimpressive, Tutankhamun's Tomb
is probably the most famous, due to its late discovery.
Howard Carter's description upon opening the tomb
in 1922 was, "At first I could see nothing,
the hot air escaping from the chamber causing
the candle flames to flicker, but presently, as
my eyes grew accustomed to the light, details
of the room within emerged slowly from the mist,
strange animals, statues and gold - everywhere
the glint of gold. For the moment - an eternity
it must have seemed to the others standing by
- I was dumb with amazement, and when Lord Carnarvon,
unable to stand the suspense any longer, inquired
anxiously, 'Can you see anything?' it was all
I could do to get out the words, "Yes, wonderful
things."' The royal seal on the door was
found intact. The first three chambers were unadorned,
with evidence of early entrance through one of
the outside walls. The next chamber contained
most of the funerary objects. The sarcophagus
was four guilded wooden shrines, one inside the
other, within which lay the stone sarcophagus,
three mummiform coffins, the inner one being solid
gold, and then the mummy. Haste can be seen in
the reliefs and the sarcophagus, due to the fact
that Tutankhamun died at only 19 years of age
following a brief reign. Though extremely impressive
to the modern world, the treasures of Tutankhamun
must have paled when compared to the tombs of
the great Pharaohs that ruled for many years during
Egypt's golden age.
-
One of the best preserved of all the temples in
Egypt, dedicated to Hathor, and built by Ptolemy
VIII Physcon and later elements were added by
the Romans.
- The complex included two birth houses, a
sacred lake, two chapels dedicated to Osiris
and Isis.
- The complex was surrounded by high mud brick
walls that were built in alternating concave
and convex sections. This produced a wavy structure
that is assumed to signify the primordial sea
which surrounds the symbolic mound of birth
and regeneration on which the temple was built.
Architectural Layout:
1- The facade consists of six Hathor headed
columns and a low screen wall. The facade top
features a huge curved cornice.
2- The first hypostyle hall containing 18 Hathor
columns. The ceiling is divided into seven bands
of astronomical figures featuring the goddess
Nut, vultures, winged sun-discs and the zodiac.
The walls are decorated with scenes of Pharaohs
making offerings to Hathor.
3- Smaller hypostyle hall - six smaller Hathor
columns support the roof, the walls depict scenes
of the Pharaoh involved in ritual foundation
ceremonies.
4- Six Store chambers
5- Hall of offerings - here daily rituals were
carried out by the priests and priestesses of
Hathor
6- Hall of the ennead - here the statues of
gods were assembled on festival days
7- The Sanctuary - contained the statue of
Hathor.. On either side of the door the Pharaoh
is depicted offering a copper mirror to the
goddess.
8- A passageway around the sanctuary contains
eleven chapels dedicated to various divinities
and religious symbols.
